Study characteristics of cross-sectional studies
| Study | Design and objective | Study cohort | Primary outcomes | Secondary outcomes |
| Facilitating surgeon understanding of complex anatomy using a three-dimensional printed model.24 | Use of 3DP to improve understanding of complex anatomy (conjoined twins) versus CT scan and digital reconstruction. | 21 (12 paediatric surgery attendings, 9 paediatric surgery and general surgery residents). | 3DP models improved scale and shape orientation and identification of anatomy, but not linear/point-to-point distances. Not all outcome data were reported. Using 3DP models was associated with improved test times compared with CT alone and CT with digital reconstructions (6.6 min vs 18.9 min vs 14.9 min, p<0.05). | None reported. |
| Hands-on surgical training of congenital heart surgery using 3-dimensional print models.10 | Use of 3DP as part of surgical training for CHD Participants were given a questionnaire following the surgical simulation session. | 81 cardiovascular surgery trainees and attendings Conducted in the USA, Canada and South Korea. | 3DP models demonstrated necessary pathological findings and were acceptable for surgical training. Materials used differed from real human myocardium. | Printing took 5–7 hours for each model at an estimated total cost of $150–$210. The average cost for print materials per model was $60. |
| Incorporating three-dimensional printing into a simulation-based congenital heart disease and critical care training curriculum for resident physicians.17 | Use of 3DP models in a 60 min simulation teaching VSD anatomy, echocardiography, repair and postoperative critical care management Participants were given a presession and postsession test scored out of 10. | 23 paediatric resident physicians. | 3DP models improved their knowledge acquisition (4.83 vs 7.33, p=0.0082), knowledge reporting (4.25 vs 6.86, p=0.01) and structural conceptualisation (4.17 vs 7.22, p<0.0001). | None reported. |
| Transcending dimensions: a comparative analysis of cloaca imaging in advancing the surgeon’s understanding of complex anatomy.25 | To compare the effectiveness of four different modalities in teaching cloacal malformations in the context of operative planning (2D contrast study cloacagram vs 3D rotatable CT scan reconstruction vs software-enhanced 3D video animation vs 3DP cloaca model). | 59 paediatric surgeons (29 trainees and 30 attendings). | Participants using 3DP models scored significantly better (p<0.001) compared with those using other modalities. 2D cloacogram versus 3D CT versus enhanced 3D CT versus 3DP; trainees: 10.5% vs 46.7% vs 67.1% vs 73.8%; attendings: 22.2%, 54.8%, 66.2%, 74.0%. | 18 hours to print, cost of models not reported. |
| Use of 3D models of congenital heart disease as an education tool for cardiac nurses.22 | Use of 3DP models to improve knowledge in cardiac nurses of various CHDs after treatment: TOF, transposition of the great arteries, aortic coarctation, pulmonary atresia, hypoplastic left heart syndrome Participants were given a five-question survey with Likert questions. | 100 cardiac nurses (65 paediatric, 35 adult). | Percentage of participants that agree/strongly agree that 3DP models:
Mean score for utility: 5.1 out of 7.0 Participants reported the value of being able to see inside the model heart explicitly and potential of using 3DP models in education/training. | None reported. |
| Utility of 3D printed cardiac models for medical student education in congenital heart disease: across a spectrum of disease severity.15 | The impact of 3DP models for PS, ASD, aortic coarctation, TOF, TGA and HLHS. A four-station workshop used 2D images, embryology videos, spoken explanation, pathology specimens and 3DP models. Students rotated between all stations. They were given prestation and poststation questionnaires at the 3DP station assessing self-reported confidence and ranked the different teaching modalities. | 45 first-year medical students. | Using 3DP models improved self-reported confidence scores (PS (0.3, p<0.001), ASD (0.6, p<0.001), TOF (0.8, p<0.001), dextro-TGA (d-TGA) (0.9, p<0.001), Coarct (0.8, p<0.001), HLHS (1.1, p<0.001)). Strong correlation between the complexity of pathology and perceived knowledge increase (R2=0.73, p=0.03) Participants agreed that they would use 3DP models in future teaching sessions (mean score: 4.40 out of 5). 74.2% of participants scored 3DP models at least 3 out of 5 for utility as an educational tool. | None reported. |
| Utility of 3-dimensional printing of hearts with complex congenital heart disease in the education of pediatric trainees and sonographers.* 23 | Use of 3DP models versus CT/MRI imaging to improve general understanding of CHD. | 10 (5 Paediatric residents, 2 sonographers and 2 cardiology fellows). | 80% of residents and 100% of sonographers and fellows felt that their understanding of CHD improved with 3DP models and felt that these should be used in the education of paediatric trainees. | None reported. |
| Utilizing three-dimensional printing technology to assess the feasibility of high-fidelity synthetic ventricular septal defect models for simulation in medical education.18 | Teaching and simulation using 3DP CHD models, including instruction on surgical incisions and suturing skills Score out of 10. | 29 (16 medical and 13 premedical students). | Significant (p<0.0001) preseminar and postseminar score improvement in knowledge acquisition (3.22 vs 7.02), knowledge reporting (2.16 vs 6.60) and structural conceptualisation (2.17 vs 6.31) of VSD. | None reported. |
*Conference abstract.
ASD, atrial septal defect; CHD, congenital heart disease; 3DP, 3D printed; HLHS, hypoplastic left heart syndrome; PS, pulmonic stenosis; TGA, transposition of the great arteries; TOF, tetralogy of Fallot; VSD, ventricular septal defect.