Study characteristics of randomised control trials
| Study | Design and objective | Study cohort | Primary outcomes | Secondary outcomes |
| Three-dimensional printed paediatric airway model improves novice learners' flexible bronchoscopy skills with minimal direct teaching from faculty.16 | The impact of 3DP airway models in training/teaching flexible bronchoscopy to paediatric residents Assessed on identifying six structures on bronchoscopy and the time taken to complete the task. Control and intervention groups were assessed prestudy, poststudy and a minimum of 2 months following the session. | 27 paediatric residents (PGY2) at the beginning of their paediatric respiratory rotation (18 in intervention group, 9 in control group). | Intervention versus control groups: median difference between prestudy and poststudy scores 4 vs 0 (p<0.001), median difference in times: 432 s vs 0 s (p<0.001) Minimum of 2 months poststudy, intervention versus control: median prestudy and delayed poststudy score difference (2.5 vs 1, p=0.123), median difference in prestudy and delayed poststudy times: 180 s vs 0 s (p=0.141). | Estimated total cost for materials and labour to trainer: $2500 Cost of fused deposition modelling-type 3D printer: $32 000 12 hours to produce the computer model ready to print. |
| Three-dimensional printing models in congenital heart disease education for medical students: a controlled comparative study.14 | To compare knowledge acquisition and structural conceptualisation of three subtypes of VSD for medical students with 3DP models versus without 3DP models Participants were given a postsession test assessing knowledge acquisition and structural conceptualisation, and a subjective questionnaire. | 63 medical students (32 in the intervention group, 31 in the control group). | 3DP models significantly improved subjective understanding (mean score for intervention and control groups, out of 100: 72.19 vs 56.12; p<0.0001) and objective structural conceptualisation (mean score for intervention and control groups, out of 30: 18.44 vs 14.52; p=0.03) but not in knowledge acquisition of VSD (mean score for intervention and control groups, out of 70: 44.06 vs 36.77; p=0.06). | None reported. |
| Usage of 3D models of tetralogy of Fallot for medical education: impact on learning congenital heart disease.20 | To compare conventional 2D drawings versus 3DP models in knowledge acquisition of TOF Presession and postsession knowledge tests (out of 9) were performed, and self-reported questionnaires (out of 25) were completed. | 35 paediatric residents (17 in 2D image group, 18 in 3DP model group). | No observable significant difference between 3DP models and 2D images in terms of knowledge acquisition (mean post-test scores: 6.0 vs 6.3) or self-reported confidence in TOF (21 vs 20, p=0.39), but 3DP models provided significantly greater learner satisfaction (24 vs 21, p=0.03). | Cost to produce models ranged from $15 to $300 depending on the printer. Time taken to print each model was approximately 12 hours. |
| Use of 3D models of vascular rings and slings to improve resident education.21 | Block randomisation was employed to recruit participants. The intervention group used 3DP models in didactic teaching sessions to improve understanding of vascular rings and pulmonary artery slings. The control group was shown virtual models. Presession and postsession subjective questionnaires and knowledge testing were performed by participants. | 36 paediatric and emergency medicine residents. | Both groups self-reported improved confidence in identifying, diagnosing, and treating vascular rings and slings. Intervention groups scored significantly higher than the control groups (62.2% vs 45.1%, p=0.001); however, the score improvement from pretest to post-test scores was insignificant between intervention and control groups (2.6 vs 1.8, p=0.084). | None reported. |
| Utility of three-dimensional models in resident education on simple and complex intracardiac congenital heart defects19 | Block randomisation was employed to recruit participants. Both groups attended a lecture with 2D images/virtual models. The intervention group was given 3DP models during the lecture as an adjunct to the lecture content. Presession and postsession subjective questionnaires and knowledge testing were performed by participants. | 60 paediatric and emergency medicine residents (26 in the VSD portion of the study and 34 in the TOF portion of the study). | Subjective reporting of confidence in understanding the pathology significantly increased in both control and intervention groups in the VSD and TOF portions of the study. In the VSD study, the control group had a significantly greater improvement in post-test scores compared with those in the intervention arm (3.16 vs 1.93, p=0.004). In the TOF study, despite the intervention arm having a greater postsession test score than the control group (6.06 vs 5.29, p=0.037), there was no significant difference in presession and postsession score changes between control and intervention groups (2.23 vs 2.65, p=0.406). | None reported. |
3DP, 3D printed; TOF, tetralogy of Fallot; VSD, ventricular septal defect.