Strategies to Enhance Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research

  1. Beth L Vealé, PhD, R.T.(R)(QM)

Conducting qualitative research might seem daunting for individuals who are new to the task.1,2 Qualitative research is used to record data that is not in the form of numbers such as opinions, feelings, and experiences; quantitative research is used to measure data in the form of numbers. Although guidelines to conducting qualitative research exist, each project is unique, and the researcher must decide how to proceed.1 Because the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis in qualitative research, focus and interpretive thinking are critical.14 Through reflection, researchers are better able to explain the topic under inquiry by minimizing or disclosing their own assumptions and biases while collecting, coding, and sorting qualitative data.

The Researcher’s Role

In quantitative research, the researcher’s involvement is defined as detached; in qualitative research, the role is participatory.4 The qualitative researcher gains access to the participants’ natural environment and is the main research instrument used to collect and analyze data.14 It is important for qualitative researchers to understand that their biases might influence the study’s outcomes.4 In quantitative research, the researcher is objective and distant; however, qualitative research and interpretivism—the understanding that individuals are complex and respond differently to the environment around them—do not require adherence to objectivity.4 In fact, subjectivity is inevitable and often seen as valuable in qualitative research. Acknowledging that it is difficult to eliminate biases, qualitative researchers present their assumptions, values, and reasons for choosing the research topic directly in a positionality statement that is included with the study’s findings. A positionality statement provides readers the opportunity to consider the researcher’s stance in relation to the findings.

Reflection

Lapum and Hume shared an exercise that they used with their graduate students to teach qualitative research methods, and it can be used by individuals to improve their understanding of qualitative research methods.2 According to Lapum and Hume, it is important for individuals to use their knowledge of quantitative research to extend their thinking and understanding of qualitative research.2 Using the phenomenon of death, 2 questions were posed to the students. For the quantitative question, “How often do you think about the uncertainty of your own life or the death of someone close to you?”, students selected often, occasionally, or hardly ever/never. The qualitative question had students “Think about death in your own life (past deaths or anticipated deaths), and write a few words or a sentence that captures your thoughts and feelings.” The instructors collected the students’ responses and shared the results with the class.

This exercise allowed students to examine and reflect on their peers’ answers and think about the type of data elicited through both questions.2 Students also gained insight into the type of data that can emerge from quantitative and qualitative research questions, and specifically what qualitative research uniquely offers. Lapum and Hume stated that students indicated how the qualitative question resulted in rich descriptions and an understanding about thoughts of death. Ultimately, the students learned the type of data they collect is based on their initial research question.

Interpretive Thinking

Lapum and Hume shared another exercise to help their students recognize the difference between objective observation and subjective perception; this also can be used by people who want to enhance their knowledge of qualitative data analysis.2 This exercise used a contemporary dance piece, Roy Assaf’s dance, “Six Years Later,” and allowed students to interpret the meaning of the statement: The researcher is the instrument.2 Half of the students in the class received a paper with the following instructions: When you watch this dance, write down exactly what you observe. Be objective and make no assumptions. The other half of the class received a paper with these instructions: When you watch this dance, write down your understanding of what is going on. None of the students knew what was on each other’s paper.

After watching the dance, the students shared their writings and were prompted to consider the differences between their responses.2 The students’ reflections led to a discussion about the differences between observation and perception. Ultimately, the interpretive nature of qualitative research requires researchers to engage conscientiously in a subjective perception of another person’s experience in the context of their own experience. This task can be challenging because all individuals are shaped by philosophical principles that influence what they see and how they make meaning of it. As a qualitative researcher, it is key to minimize and disclose those beliefs and opinions so an accurate representation of the topic can be presented.

Coding and Sorting

Because qualitative data are presented as words from participant observation field notes, interview transcripts, journals, documents, and literature, thematic analyses with coding and sorting techniques commonly are conducted. A thematic analysis involves observing and recording patterns in the data.4,5 However, thematic analyses with coding and sorting are not the only ways to analyze qualitative data. Coding is the term used to describe the transitional process between data collection and data analysis. Decoding occurs when a passage is analyzed to decipher its core meaning, and encoding occurs when the passage is labeled with an appropriate code.5

A code in qualitative inquiry is a word, phrase, or sentence that represents aspects of data or captures the essence or features of data. Saldaña presented a coding example using field notes about an inner city neighborhood.5 He wrote, “I notice that the grand majority of homes have chain link fences in front of them. There are many dogs (mostly German shepherds) with signs on fences that say ‘Beware of the Dog’.” He analyzes this transcript with the code security. Another possible code for this transcript might be safety. The goal of coding is to reduce the data without losing the meaning of the original transcript. According to Saldaña, coding should capture the main ideas or issues presented in the data. Kranke et al added that coding is an essential component of developing a sound qualitative analysis because the interpretation of the data is dependent on close and careful readings of the texts, being attentive to how something is said or done, and identifying any processes that unfold.3

Kranke et al suggested a coding exercise for social work students using pop culture song lyrics.3 Individuals who want to practice their coding skills also can complete this exercise to improve their analysis skills. The researchers used the lyrics to Lady Gaga’s song “Born This Way” and instructed students to code each line or stanza of the song.3 Although researchers selected the song because of its worldwide recognition in popular culture, most song lyrics can be a feasible data source for teaching qualitative methods because they are accessible to students while being reflective of a collective identity among individuals in society.

The researchers encouraged the students to complete the coding exercise collaboratively initially and then code the last few verses independently.3 As the students completed the coding exercise, they were asked:

  • ■ What population is the singer talking about?

  • ■ How does prior knowledge of this population’s struggle influence your analysis?

  • ■ How does context setting, time, and social reality affect the experience described in these lyrics?

  • ■ When you are independently coding, how will you establish reliability of findings among class- mates?

As students shared their responses, they quickly recognized how their biases and assumptions affected their coding and the findings of the exercise.3 It is important for qualitative researchers to understand that their personal opinions and perspectives can affect the study’s findings, and they should make attempts to minimize and disclose such information. Other coding exercises might include a document listing reasons individuals chose medical imaging or radiation therapy as a profession, or the factors that lead educators into teaching. Imagine a comprehensive list identifying the various reasons and factors. Each reason or factor on the list could be coded collaboratively or independently.

Once the data are coded, the researcher reviews the codes for patterns and common themes. This process is referred to as sorting, where codes are categorized and themes are generated based on the patterns identified.5 Saldaña defines a pattern as any word or phrase that is repetitive, regular, or consistently occurs in the transcription. These patterns can be characterized by5:

  • ■ similarity – happen the same way

  • ■ difference – happen in predictably different ways

  • ■ frequency – happen often or seldom

  • ■ sequence – happen in certain order

  • ■ correspondence – happen in relation to other events

  • ■ causation – one pattern causes another

Patterns are used to identify categories that are repetitive in the transcription from the coded data; those categories are reviewed to generate common themes in the data.5 Themes are defined as the outcomes of coding and sorting processes.

Presenting the Findings

One technique that can be used to present the common themes identified in the coded data is a top 10 list. A top 10 list is created by extracting 10 patterns from the data that strike the researcher as being most representative of the study.6 A top 10 list can be arranged in various orders, including chronologically, hierarchically, telescopically, episodically, narratively, or from small detail to big picture. This arrangement depends on the topic being studied. Another approach to presenting the common themes involves the trinity strategy, where the 3 main patterns or themes that stand out in the data are discussed. Either strategy requires the researchers to minimize tendencies to look for, interpret, or recall only information that validates their personal assumptions and biases regarding the topic.

Providing a summary table of the findings also is a good approach to employ when presenting themes in qualitative data. One column should contain the theme itself, a second column should briefly define the theme, and a final column should document evidence from the data supporting the theme.5 This table provides readers with a brief display of the study’s findings and shows the relationships between the themes.

Conclusion

People who conduct qualitative research should engage in reflective and interpretive thinking so they can assess accurately the topic being studied. Central to qualitative research is the notion that the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis. Qualitative researchers must minimize and disclose their personal assumptions and biases while collect- ing, coding, and sorting qualitative data to acquire an accurate representation of the phenomenon or topic. Educators can use various strategies to teach imaging science and radiation therapy students about qualitative data analysis. Individuals who are competent in their abilities to collect and analyze qualitative data are more likely to conduct more qualitative studies in medical imaging and radiation therapy.

Footnotes

  • Kevin R Clark, EdD, R.T.(R)(QM), is assistant professor and graduate coordinator for Midwestern State University, Department of Radiologic Sciences, in Wichita Falls, Texas. He is a 2001 graduate of McNeese State University’s BSRT program and has worked as a radiologic technologist and educator since that time. Clark serves as a Radiologic Technology Editorial Review Board member and can be contacted at kevin.clark{at}mwsu.edu.

  • Beth L Vealé, PhD, R.T.(R)(QM), is professor for Midwestern State University Department of Radiologic Sciences. She is a 1980 graduate of New Mexico State University’s Radiologic Technology program and has been an educator and technologist for 38 years. Vealé is a Radiologic Technology Editorial Review Board member and a Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology site visitor. She can be contacted at beth.veale{at}mwsu.edu.

References

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